Polska

Not many people know that Poles have achieved many spectacular technological successes, and that the activities of Polish design engineers and builders extend well beyond the borders of their home country. In the late nineteenth century, Ernest Malinowski developed and was responsible for the construction of the highest railway line in the world, Callao-La Oroya in Peru. Ralph Modjeski (Rafał Modrzejweski)designed many of the bridges in the United States, including the Benjamin Franklin Bridge in Philadelphia.

Stefan Drzewiecki became famous as the designer of some of the first submarines (1877), and for his role in the development of gliding theory. He studied the flight of birds, and his observations were applied to the development of aeroplanes. He was the first to establish aerodynamics laboratories. He also developed the  theory of screw propellers and later thehelical propulsion theory . He also constructed a new type of water turbine with lateral uptake. Drzewieckis made a significant contribution to the development of propeller and aircraft design. He worked with Stanisław Rogalski. Designers Drzewiecki, Rogalski, and Wigura set up the RWD company, which produced sports planes. They also designed the RWD-5 bis in which Stanisław Skarżyński flew across the Atlantic in 1933; the RWD-6, in which Żwirko and Wigura won first place at the Challenge de Tourisme International air races in Berlin in 1932; and the RWD-8, a mass-produced aircraft for training purposes. No less famous was their next plane, the RWD-9, in which Jerzy Bajan and Stanisław Płonczyński won the Challenge races in 1934. Its successor, the RWD-14, called the the Heron, was a reconnaissance place during the Second World War. After the War, Stanisław Rogalski settled in the United States, where he worked for the Chase Aircraft Company in Trenton and was the co-designer of the C-123 transport plane. Later he worked for the Grumman Company and taught at Princeton University.

Became famous as the designer of some of the first submarines (1877), and for his role in the development of gliding theory. He studied the flight of birds, and his observations were applied to the development of aeroplanes. He was the first to establish aerodynamics laboratories. He also developed the  theory of screw propellers and later thehelical propulsion theory . He also constructed a new type of water turbine with lateral uptake. Drzewieckis made a significant contribution to the development of propeller and aircraft design. He worked with Stanisław Rogalski. Designers Drzewiecki, Rogalski, and Wigura set up the RWD company, which produced sports planes. They also designed the RWD-5 sport plane, in which Stanisław Skarżyński flew across the Atlantic in 1933; the RWD-6, in which Żwirko and Wigura won first place at the Challenge de Tourisme International air races in Berlin in 1932; and the RWD-8, a mass-produced aircraft for training purposes. No less famous was their next plane, the RWD-9, in which Jerzy Bajan and Stanisław Płonczyński won the Challenge races in 1934. Its successor, the RWD-14, called the the Heron, was a reconnaissance place during the Second World War. After the War, Stanisław Rogalski settled in the United States, where he worked for the Chase Aircraft Company in Trenton and was the co-designer of the C-123 transport plane. Later he worked for the Grumman Company and taught at Princeton University.

In quite another field of technology, another Polish inventor, Jan Szczepanik, patented a photoelectric method of producing coloured cloth, and began work on a wireless telegraph and a device capable of transmitting images. He constructed a "telectroscope", which was a simple prototype of the television. In 1902-1903 he concentrated on colour photography, and in 1906  built a new type of colorimeter. In 1925, he presented his new small-image colour films in Germany and Switzerland. One of Szczepanik's most interesting inventions was the "photosculptor", which made it possible to copy sculptures, and the silk bullet-proof vest, which saved the life of the King Alonso XIII of Spain, during one of the attempts to assassinate him.

Stefan Bryła was a pioneer in welding and the use of welding in design. He was the first to develop a method for welding steel structures, which, for example, could then be used in the construction of tall buildings and bridges. Janusz Groszkowski's research and the method he developed helped make the construction of lamp generators possible. Groszkowski also worked on semiconductor electronics. He constructed the first oxygen-cathodemagnetron, which served as the basis for modern radars. He continued his research during the Second World War. It was in large part thanks to Groszkowski that it became possible to understand the methods used to construct of the German V-2 rockets. One of the best-known Polish designers is Wacław Olszak, founder and director of the International Centre for Mechanical Sciences in Udine. Professor Olszak was famous for his research in the theory of plasticity, which is used in the construction of large buildings, viaducts and bridges. He was a pioneer in welding and the use of welding in design. He was the first to develop a method for welding steel structures, which, for example, could then be used in the construction of tall buildings and bridges. Janusz Groszkowski's research and the method he developed helped make the construction of lamp generators possible. Groszkowski also worked on semiconductor electronics. He constructed the first oxygen-cathodemagnetron, which served as the basis for modern radars. He continued his research during the Second World War. It was in large part thanks to Groszkowski that it became possible to understand the methods used to construct of the German V-2 rockets. One of the best-known Polish designers is Wacław Olszak, founder and director of the International Centre for Mechanical Sciences in Udine. Professor Olszak was famous for his research in the theory of plasticity, which is used in the construction of large buildings, viaducts and bridges.

The University of Cracow was founded in 1364 by King Casimir the Great. Not much is known about the first 36 years of its existence, but lectures were probably held in the Royal Castle on Wawel Hill in Cracow. Casimir wanted to locate the University in Kazimierz, a neighbouring borough, but these plans were never accomplished. The University  was revived in 1400 by King Vładislaus Jagiełło on a foundation from a legacy left in the last will of his wife Queen Jadwiga.1400 marked  the start of the University's golden age, which lasted until the mid-sixteenth century. There were already four faculties : Theology, Laws, Medicine, and Philosophy, qualifying it as a full-fledged university, well-known and regarded throughout Europe. By the mid-fifteenth century, 44% of the students at the University of Cracow were foreigners. Outstanding scholars taught there, including Copernicus's tutor, Wojciech (Adalbertus) of Brudzewo, Maciej Miechowita  (Matthias de Miechow) and Paweł Włodkowic (Paulus Vladimiri). The University of Cracow made an important contribution to the ecumenical councils of the 15th century (members of its law school were the first to formulate the idea of a "justified war" and the principle that pagans were entitled to their own state and were not to be forcibly converted). In 1656, during the Swedish invasion of Poland (1655-1660), the University's senate decided to close down the institution rather than pledge its loyalty to the King of Sweden. This act was an important symbol of how intimately  the University had become bound with the affairs of the Polish nation. An age of reform came in the University's history in the late eighteenth century,  introduced by Hugo Kołłątaj, modernising both its curricula and administrative structure. The University was transformed into the modern Szkoła Główna Koronna (Principal School of the Realm). Unfortunately the reforms were short-lived, with the ensuing period of the partitions as a particularly dramatic phase in the University's history. In the early nineteenth century the University experienced a period of Germanisation. Not until the late nineteenth century was it possible to speak again of any degree of autonomy or true academic freedom. Outstanding scholars, including Bobrzyński, Tarnowski, Szujski, Olszewski, Wróblewski and Cybulski were members of the faculty at that time, and again the University flourished academically. In the two decades of Poland's independence (1918-1939), 560 professors and lecturers left the Jagiellonian University (a name which the University of Cracow received in 1815 under the terms of the Congress of Vienna) to strengthen faculties in other universities around the country, thus making the Jagiellonian University the mother of all Polish institutions of scholarship. Then came the tragic year of 1939,  and the long night of the German occupation, during which the University's professors were deported to Nazi concentration camps and murdered in a devious plan called Sonderaktion Krakau. After the War, the Jagiellonian University quickly resumed its academic activities. Today, it is a vibrant university, boasting a long and brilliant academic tradition. Two of its most outstanding graduates were Nicolaus Copernicus and Pope John Paul II.