Against Russia or Germany?

The dream of independence returned with the 1905 Revolution in Russia. Although no significant political changes were achieved within the Kingdom (Polish Partition) or in Russia itself, Polish hopes and memories of bygone national uprisings revived. Some political groups opted for an armed struggle for independence, while others preferred a policy of negotiations with the partitioning powers. However, everybody knew that it would take a Pan-European conflict, a war between the partitioning powers, for a chance for the Polish cause to succeed. The main problem lay in the choice of an ally; some campaigners (Józef Pi³sudski and the independence group) called for co-operation with Austria and Prussia; others (Roman Dmowski and the nationalist groups) saw an opportunity in an alliance with Russia and the Entente Powers (France, Great Britain, and later the United States).